MARINE WATER POLLUTION MONITORING IN MOMBASA COASTLINE.

Many of people have provided help, encouragement, advice and support in the writing of this proposal and its compilation. In particular, am grateful for the advice of my supervisor, Mr. Kisoyan, other lecturers and practitioners of Environmental science, I would like to thank the course lecturer Mr. Paul Kisoyan

I must mention the help of Egerton University Library and my faculty (FERD) for the wonderful information they provided.

Finally, I am deeply indebted to the patience and support of my family who provided the psychological help while I was writing this proposal

Greatest of all I thank the Almighty God for giving me peace and life and having led me throughout this process.

ABSTRACT

The increase in human population has resulted into natural resource depletion and enormous production of wastes filling the dumpsites and landfills in high rates. There is a considerable harmful effects emanating from wastes which destroys the ecological set up of our ecosystems. Toxic substances are released into our natural systems; they can be consumed by organisms and may end up in the human food chain at higher concentrations. Pollution in the oceans is a major problem that is affecting the ocean and the rest of the world. When dealing with marine pollution, sewage is one of the dealing problems that have become increasingly difficult to content with.

Poor management of sewage treatment and dumping of untreated sewage is threatening the very lives of thousands of poor people who ironically make a significant contribution to sewage discharge.

This study investigates the effects of sewage discharge on nutrient concentration. The study will be carried out in the month of December in Makupa, Mtwapa and Tudor creeks in Mombasa to investigate the impact of sewage pollution on the marine ecosystem. This will involve nutrient analysis to determine level of nitrates, ammonia and phosphates as a result of nutrients loading.

CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pollution of marine ecosystems is a worldwide problem (Mwashote, 2003, pp. 25-34). Surface runoff from coastal urban areas feeds directly into the marine environment via storm sewers which carry a mix of materials, including silt, hydrocarbons from oil, residues from industries, pesticides and fertilizers from residential areas and coli form bacteria from animal wastes. Chlorine added to drinking water and used to treat sewage effluents as a bactericide may form a complex with organic compounds in the water to produce chlorinated hydrocarbons that are toxic in the marine environments, (Arbrust, 2008, pp. 320-329).

Many toxicants reaching the coast do not remain in the water but become adsorbed onto the small particles of matter suspended in the water column, some of which have high organic content and form a food source for marine creatures. In this way, heavy metals and organic toxicants associated with the particles finds their way into the body tissues of organism, where they may accumulate and be passed on to predators (Arbrust, 2008).

Pollution in the ocean indirectly affects human health and resources.

1.1Sources of Pollution

Main sources of pollution includes: oil spills, discharge of untreated sewage into the ocean, toxic waste and dumping of harmful materials are major sources of pollution in the ocean.

Toxic wastes are poisonous materials that are being dumped into the ocean. They harm many plants and animals in the oceans and have a huge impact on our health.

Other source of pollution includes boating pollution that is pollution which comes from the boat engine. The engine gives off excess gasoline which pollutes water and ends up killing plants and animals in the sea.

Garbage dumping which is the dumping of harmful materials into the ocean, like human waste from bathing and plastic materials. This waste enters the sea through sewage pipes. Storm water mixes with sewage, rain water makes sewage to overflow, and this mixture ends up in the ocean as runoff. This pollutes the ocean water causing death on plants and animals

Waste water needs to be treated before being released into the ocean. Human sewage consist of toilet flushing, waste water form bathing, laundry and dishwashing, animal and vegetation matter from food operation that is disposed through an in-sink garbage disposal. Because coasts are densely populated, the amount of sewage reaching sea and ocean are of particular concern because some substances it contains can harm ecosystem and pose a significant public health threat. In addition to the nutrients which can cause over enrichment of receiving water bodies, sewage carries an array of potentially disease causing microbes called pathogens

The problem associated with sewage disposal has become a major problem of the urban world due to increase in human population and urbanization. The commonality of sewage related problems throughout the coastal areas of the world is significant since these areas are inhabited by over 60% of human population. Consequently domestic waste water discharges are considered one of the most significant threats of the coastal environment worldwide (UNEP, 2006)

1.2 Impacts of Marine Pollution

Environmental effects related with domestic waste water discharges are generally local with transboundary implications in some areas.

Coastal water are facing a variety of pressure affecting both the ecosystem and human health through sewage waste water discharges and disposal practices that may lead to introduction of high nutrient loads, hazardous chemicals and pathogens causing diseases. The adverse public health, environmental, socio-economic, food quality and security and aesthetic impact from sewage contamination in coastal areas are well documented (WHO, 2003)

Pollution of the coastal water usually interferes with various water uses. Cultured bivalves are generally reared in areas that are often densely populated and are sensitive to heavy pollution from human activities.

Pathogens transmitted by human faeces are most commonly involved and the discharge of sewage polluted by human and animal pathogens into the sea represents the main source of bacterial pollution.

Every pathogen present in the water may be trapped and concentrated in the tissues of the bivalves and so represents a potential health hazard.

Legislation, directives and water quality standards for various coastal users like shell fish harvesting, recreation, drinking and aquaculture have been developed in many countries to limit problem associated with sewage. These standards are usually not realized due to poor sewerage management. Usually arises from the fact that waste water management decisions take place in complex situations governed hypothetical, bureaucratic and financial forces often interfere with the implementation of existing regulations and standards

In most cases, waste disposal decisions encounter resistance and inefficiency in the eventual administrative implementation and financial difficulties that affect the disposers’ ability to comply with the original decision.

The fact that majority of urban population depends on coastal surfaces water which are usually used for sewage disposal, in one way or another make water pollution the principle problem that requires solid waste management practices to contain impacts.

1.3 Mombasa City

Mombasa city is located in Kenya at Coast province. It covers an area of 295km2, that is land area 230km2 and water 65km2 with elevation of 50m. According to the census results received by the Ministry of Planning and National Development; the population of the Coast Province is 3,325,307. This is a 33.7% higher than the number 10 years ago. Mombasa remains to be most populated district at the coast with 523,183 inhabitants, (NATION, 2010)(Daily Nation, September 1^st, 2010), while population density is184km2 and the time zone of EAT (UTC+3).

Mombasa is the second largest city in Kenya lying next to the Indian Ocean. It has a major port and an international airport. The city also serves as a center of the coastal tourism industry.

Mombasa is characterized by a flat topography. The town of Mombasa is a central of Mombasa Island but extends to the mainland. The mainland is separated from the mainland by two creeks that is Portreiz in the south and Tudor creek in the north.

The coastal city of Mombasa is mainly occupied by the Muslims, Mijikenda, Swahili people and inhabitants from all over the world. Over the centuries there have been many immigrants and traders who settled in Mombasa, particularly form Persia, The Middle East, Somalia, and the Indian Sub-Continent, who came mainly as traders and skilled craftsmen. Even after four or five generations, their descendants continue to contribute to the economy of the present day.

Geography and climate

Being a coastal town, Mombasa is characterized by a flat topography. The town of Mombasa is centered on Mombasa Island, but extends to the mainland. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks, Port Reitz in the south and Tudor Creek in the north.

Mombasa has a warm, tropical climate. The amount of rainfall depends essentially on season. The rainiest months are April and May, while in January to February the rainfall is minimal. The coastal climate of Kenya is influenced mainly by large-scale pressure system of the Western Indian Ocean and monsoon winds. The monsoon winds blow from the northeast (Northeast Monsoon wind) between December and March (Kaskazi) and from the Southeastern (South east monsoon wind) from May to October (kusi) with the one to two month transition periods characterized by variable and weaker winds.

Economy

Mombasa is a major trade centre and home to Kenya's only large seaport, the Kilindini Harbor. Kilindini is an old Swahili term that means "deep". The port is so called because the channel is naturally very deep. Kilindini Harbor is an example of a natural geographic phenomenon called RIA, formed millions of years ago when the sea level rose and engulfed a river that was flowing from the mainland; Transport is by Air, Train, Road, Taxi, Matatu, Tuk-Tuk, and Boda-boda, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mombasa).

Population growth

The coastal city of Mombasa and its environs has in recent times been seen to have considerable industrial and population development. The rapid expansion of the region is mainly because of the Kilindini harbor, several tourist’s hotels, Bamburi cement factory, meat and food processing factories, and grain millers and stores.

The anthropogenic influence associated with these developments may lead to both direct and indirect degradation of the marine environments which causes eutrophication in the receiving water bodies. Nitrates, ammonia and phosphates found in human wastes serve as a food for algae and bacteria. This makes organisms to rapidly increase in number to the point that they use up most of the dissolved oxygen that is naturally found in water making it difficult for other organism in such aquatic environments to live. The increase in concentration of nutrients leads to eutrophication

The study is developed to make assessment in order to evaluate the prevailing situations and provide accurate information on the ocean water quality in Mombasa using pollution indicators that would give basis for appropriate waste water management practices.

This study therefore tries to find out if sewage pollution alters the nutrients levels in ocean water and hence primary productivity. The three creeks receive varying loads of pollutants emanating from various anthropogenic inputs such as industrial sewage and urban/domestic wastes.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE RIVIEW

2.1Sources of marine pollution

a) Solid waste dumping

Using the sea as a dump for trash and garbage was and is still a common practice around the world. Probably more than 25% of the mass of all materials dumped at the sea is dredged material from ports and waterways and one of the industrial waste disposals is dumping at the sea. Once the pollutants enter the environment they can be transported anywhere in the ocean, (Sverdrup, 2008). Kibarani dumpsite next to Makupa creek is an example of sources of intrusion of solid waste into the marine waters.

b) Sewage effluent

The Changamwe Sewerage Treatment Plant discharges their treated sewage water directly into the ocean, the storm water runoff, tourist hotels discharges their wastes into the ocean. Other sources of pollution include discharges from municipal wastewaters facilities, power generating stations and industrial effluents.

c) Toxicants

Surface runoff from coastal urban areas feeds directly into the marine environment via storm sewers. Storm sewers carry a mix of materials including silt, hydrocarbons from oil, residues from industry, pesticides and fertilizers from residential areas and coliform bacteria from animal wastes. From rural and agricultural land, runoff finds its way through rivers and stream to the coast. These runoffs supplies pesticides and nutrients which can over fertilize the water, (Sverdrup, 2008).

d) Plastic trash

Plastics from residential places and commercial places always fill the beaches. Thousands of marine organisms are crippled or killed each year by these materials.

e) Oil spills

Human activities in the 21^stcentury depend heavily on oil and this dependence requires the bulk transport of crude oil by sea to the land based refineries and centres of use. This transport crates the potential for accidents that releases large volumes of oil and expose the world’s coasts and estuaries to spills associated with vessel casualties and transfer procedures. Because industry, agriculture and private and commercial transportation requires petroleum products, oil is constantly being released into the environment to find its way directly or indirectly to the sea, (Sverdrup, 2008).

2.2 Routes of administration

a) Percutaneous- This is the exposure to toxicants with the skin

b) Oral-This is the exposure through the gastrointestinal tract. Toxicants within the gastrointestinal tract do not produce injury until they pass through the wall of the gastrointestinal tract and are absorbed into the blood stream, (GIRARD, 2005)

2.3 Impacts of sewage effluents

Sewage effluents have historically been discharged throughout all in-shallow coastal waters and are one of the major stresses impacting coastal ecosystem. These are usually significant effects on water quality and on marine life arising from sewage disposal.

Water quality deterioration is one of the most important water resources issues of the 21^st century, therefore the quality status of coastal surface water is very important and would always be under public scrutiny because of health risk associated with sewage contamination.

The potential deleterious effects of pollutants from sewage effluents on the receiving water quality of the coastal environment are manifold and depend on volume of the discharge, the chemical composition and concentration in the effluents.

Example; whether it is amount of suspended solids / organic matter or hazardous pollutant like heavy metals and organochlorides and the characteristic of the receiving waters (NAP, 1989, Canter W 1996 and Nemerow and Dasgupt 1991).

Higher levels of soluble organics may cause oxygen depletion (Peter and Robin, 2002) with negative effects on aquatic biota. Contamination of the coastal water may result in changes in nutrients levels abundance, biomass and diversity of organism, bioaccumulation of organic and inorganic compounds and alteration of tropic interaction among species.

Receiving waters with high flushing capacity are able to dilute or eliminate most of the conventional pollutants but persistent toxic compounds and long lived pathogens will always be troublesome.

2.4 Nutrients In The Sea

Large quantities of nutrients released into the coastal water through the sewage waste water result into nutrient enrichment stimulating algal growth that in turn affects the photic zone depth, cause dissolved oxygen depletion ,bioaccumulation of organic and inorganic compounds and alteration of tropic interaction among both aquatic flora and fauna (Danulat et al 2002,RUSSO,2002).

Elevated nutrient levels may also result in excessive growth of algal bloom, some of which may result in production of algal toxins. The algal toxins are risks for water and sea food quality and safety (GIRARD, 2005)

2.5 Effects associated with bacterial pollution

Effects arising from bacterial pollution are many and they involve public health as well as social and economic implications. The survival of enteric bacteria in the aquatic environment has attracted interest in view of its public heath significance (Gareth Rees 1993, Nelson et al 1996).

It has been shown that filter feeding bivalves example mussels and oysters accumulate pathogens bacteria in the tissue making the shellfish unsafe for human consumption. In fact contamination from sewage discharge have resulted in close or prohibition of many shellfish areas worldwide and on the basis of this contamination some of these areas have been designated as approved, conditionally approved or unapproved areas depending on the situation.

Data are available linking waste water contaminated bathing water to swimming associated illness (Cabell 1979). Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a linear relation between microbial water quality and gastro-intestinal illnesses (Baron et al 1982, Cabell et al 1982). The damages caused by increased illness or mortality due to ingestion or skin contact with contaminated water gives rise to direct health care cost and indirect opportunity costs. (Narayana, P. 2009)

The joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Protection (GESAMP, 2001) estimated the impact of bathing in and eating shellfish from polluted sea at a cost of approximately US$ 12-24 billion per year.

In Peru 1999, when the cholera outbreak was severe is an example of negative consequence that can result from poor sewage management, the abrupt halt in tourism and agricultural export cost Peruvians economy US$ 1000 million just in ten weeks. The total economic loss was more than three times the total national investment in water supply and sanitation improvement in the 1980s (WHO 2003). Other possible effects include loss of income for fishermen, fish processing plants and loss of amenity value where the environment deteriorates.

CHAPTER 3

3.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objective of the study is to investigate the impact of sewage pollution on nutrient levels at Makupa, Mtwapa and Tudor Creeks.

3.1 Specific Objectives

I. To find out are the main sources of marine pollution in the studied sites

II. To find out the impact of the waste water on nutrients level

III. To find out the tidal effects on dilution of wastes

IV. To find out the influence of waste water pollution on primary productivity.

V. To evaluate to what extend does the sewage discharges/disposal impact on the marine water quality.

VI. To find out if the existing water quality criteria or standards for various water uses like aquaculture, shellfish, bathing and recreation met.

VII. To interpret the water quality results assembled during the study.

VIII. To determine the remediation and control measures.

IX. To find out the socio-economic impact of marine pollution.

X. To find out management options to control marine pollution.

3.2 Research Questions

I. What are the sources of marine pollutants in Mtwapa, Makupa and Tudor creeks?

II. What are impacts of the waste water on nutrients level?

III. What are the tidal effects on dilution of waste water?

IV. What are the impacts of sewage pollution on primary productivity?

V. To what extend does the sewage discharges/disposal impact on the marine water quality?

VI. Are the existing water quality criteria or standards for various water uses like aquaculture, shellfish, bathing and recreation met?

VII. What is the implication water quality results collected during the study?

VIII. What are the remediation and control measures?

IX. What are the socio-economic impacts of marine pollution?

X. What are the management options to control marine pollution?

3.3. Justification of the Study

The unprecedented anthropogenic activities and the resultant environmental degradation, the ever increasing human population which increases the pressure on the natural resources which in turn increases the volume of wastes produced. The municipal solid waste contains a variety of substances which may be toxic or carcinogenic. When the leachates from the dumpsite find their way through the intrusion of the ground water into marine waters, they cause severe degradation of marine ecosystems. For instance, the domestic waste water when they enter the oceans can cause to increase in nutrient loads, that is eutrophication due to high level of phosphates in the waters and there are also heavy metals from industrial wastes, this heavy metals can be incorporated by filter feeders which may in turn be consumed by other organisms. This results into the biomagnifications of these toxic metals in the tissues of organisms higher in the tropic levels. This may cause vulnerable species become endangered or even extinct.

This study is trying to investigate the impact of introduction of waste water into the ocean on the nutrient level at Makupa, Mtwapa and Tudor creeks in Mombasa. The expected results are that the introduction of this waste leads to increase in the nutrient level and thirds in turn causes eutrophication which alters primary productivity. The study findings will assist different government ministries, research institutions, local communities and non-governmental organizations which are increasingly attempting to control the growing problems of waste water disposal and trying come up with measures to control ocean water pollution, thus measures such as policy formulation, capacity building and environmental education, and therefore the study is worth undertaking.

CHAPTER 4

4.0THE STUDY SITE

The study sites chosen are Makupa, Mtwapa and Tudor creeks in Mombasa as impacted areas, whereas Gazi (located more than 55km from Msa city) chosen as reference or a relatively pristine area to provide or act as reference area.

.The three creeks lie within 4⁰00’ and 4⁰ 04’S and 39⁰ 36’ and 39⁰42’E. Makupa creek forms part of a larger creek system in which the port of Mombasa is located to the eastern side of Mombasa Island. Tudor creek is on the eastern side of Mombasa Island and is separated from Makupa creek by a narrow strip of landfill, The Makupa causeway, (Mwashote, 2003).

The sampling sites considered include;

· Tudor creek-

Fort Jesus (FOJE)

Madubini (MBD)

Nyali Bridge (NY)

Coast general hospital (CGH)

Kenya meat commission slaughter (KMC),

Mikindani (MKD).

· Makupa creek-

Makupa mangroves (MKMA)

Makupa causeway (MKCW)

Makupa Bridge (MKBR)

Makupa channel (MKCH)

Makupa dumpsite (MKDS)

· Mtwapa creek-

Mtwapa ferry (MTFE)

Mtwapa Bridge (MTBR)

Mtwapa prison (MTPR)

· Gazi

Samples are to be collected from new and old fish laundry beaches.

FIGURE 1: map of the study area showing sampling site.

CHAPTER 5

5.0 METHODOLOGY

5.1 Preliminary survey

A survey of the three creeks will be conducted to identify the sampling sites, accessibility, activities such as the Kibarani municipal dumpsite, tourist hotels, sewage effluent points and the Kenya Meat Commission Processing plant are some of the considerations to be made.

5.2 Parameters to be measured

Nutrients

· This involved analyzing of nutrients in the sea water (Ammonia, Nitrates and Phosphates) using a double beam spectrophotometer.

5.3Collection of samples

The samples will be collected randomly at the identified sites with the help of the local fishermen and the Kenya Marine and Research Institution. A total of 16 samples 4 from each sampling point will be used. The sample points (4) will be strategically be positioned in the three creeks to represent important features that could show sewage discharge in the creeks.

5.4 Methods used

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) adopted at KMFRI will be used determining nutrients levels. The absorbance of nitrates, phosphates and ammonia were measured spectrophotometrically and the concentration determined.

Determination of Nitrates

Nitrates in sea water are reduced almost quantitatively to nitrates when a sample is run through a column containing cadmium fillings coated with metallic copper.

The nitrite produced is determined by diazotizing with sulfanilamide and coupling with N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine to form a highly colored azo dye which can be measured spectrophotometrically.

Apparatus

· 50ml graduated cylinder

· 100ml Erlenmeyer flask

· Micropipette

· A reduction column Reagents

· Concentrated ammonium chloride

· Dilute ammonium chloride solution

Sampling and storage

100ml sampling bottle to be rinsed with sea water, and then filled with water to the brim. Mercury chloride should be added for preservation. (This applies also in phosphates and ammonia sampling)

Sample analysis

25ml of water sample will be measured using the cylinder and put in the Erlenmeyer flask.1.0ml of concentrated ammonium chloride will be added and mixed. The solution will be then poured in the reduction column and allowed to run for some time, then 25ml of the solution will be collected .0.5ml of naphthylene-diamine solution will be added and mixed. The absorbance will be measured after 1 hour by use of UV/V spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 543nm.

Determination of Phosphates

The sea water that will have been collected as sample will be allowed to react with composite reagents containing sulphuric acid, ascorbic acid, and ammoniummolybdate and potassium antimony-tatrate. The resulting complex will be reduced to give a blue solution which will be measured spectrophotometrically.

Apparatus

· 50ml graduated cylinder

· 100ml Erlenmeyer flask

· Micro pipette

Reagents

· Sulfuric acid solution

· Ascorbic acid

· Ammonium molybdate reagent

· Potassium antimony-tatrate solution

· Mixed reagent (the 4 solution are mixed in the ratio 2:5:2:1)

Sample analysis

20ml of the water will be measured using the cylinder and put in the Erlenmeyer flask.2ml of a mixed reagent will be added using a micro pipette. The mixture will be allowed to stand for 5 minutes and then absorbance read at 885nm wavelength using a UV/V spectrophotometer

Determination of ammonia

Sea water will be treated in an alkaline citrate medium with sodium hypochlorite and phenol in the presence of sodium nitroprusside which acts as a catalyzer. A blue indophenol color will be formed and measured spectrophotometrically.

Apparatus

· 50ml graduated cylinder

· 100ml Erlenmeyer flask

· Automatic pipette

Reagents

· Reagent 1(phenol and sodium nitroprusside solution)

· Reagent 2 (alkaline citrate, sodium hypochlorite)

Sampling and storage

35ml of the water sample will be measured into a flask.1ml of reagent 1 is will be added followed by 1ml of reagent 2 and shaken well. The mixture will be allowed to settle for 6 hours. Absorbance will be read using a UV/V spectrophotometer at 630nm.

5.4 Data Analysis and Presentations

The obtained data will be analyzed with the help of laboratory technicians of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) and presented by use of appropriate computer programs.

CHAPTER 6

TIME SCHEDULE

2011 2012

Activity	Sept.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.	Jan.	Feb.
Proposal presentation
Departmental defense
Sampling Data collection Laboratory analysis
Data analysis
Report writing
Final report submission

BUDGET

Items	Quantity	Amount
Water samples	16	3,500
Chemicals and reagents		2,000
Stationeries		300
Printing		200
Transport		5000
TOTAL		11,000

REFERENCE

Arbrust, S. K. (2008). An introductionto the world's oceans (10TH ed.). Newyork: Mc Graw Hill.

GESAMP. (2001).Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution, state of the marine environment.

GIRARD. (2005). Principles Of Environmental Chemistry. UK.

Mwashote. (2003). Levels of cadmium and lead in water, sediments and selectedfish species in Mombasa Kenya.

NATION, D. (2010). Census Results. 50-89.

UNEP. (2006). The state of the marine environment-Trend and state.

WHO. (2003). 345-376.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mombasa

The Daily Nation, September 1^st 2010

Environmental Science and Environmental Social Impact Assessment and Audit (EIA / EA)

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MARINE WATER POLLUTION MONITORING IN MOMBASA COASTLINE.

DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1Sources of Pollution

1.2 Impacts of Marine Pollution

1.3 Mombasa City

Geography and climate

Economy

Population growth

LITERATURE RIVIEW

2.1Sources of marine pollution

3.1 Specific Objectives

4.0THE STUDY SITE

5.0 METHODOLOGY

5.1 Preliminary survey

5.2 Parameters to be measured

5.3Collection of samples

5.4 Methods used

Determination of Nitrates

Determination of Phosphates

Determination of ammonia

5.4 Data Analysis and Presentations

TIME SCHEDULE

BUDGET

REFERENCE

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