ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF POOR HANDLING OF E-WASTE . A CASE STUDY OF DANDORA DUMPSITE, NAIROBI, KENYA

ABSTRACT

E- Waste problem exist wherever there is a human population. As the societies develop the characteristics of these problems vary with time. Although the problem may first appear as local issues, the scope and magnitudes of these problems are increasing as population density, technological advancements and standards of living rise. E- Waste management can no longer be considered in isolation. Environmental, technological and financial factors all have some bearing, and the need to conserve resources also demand attention. In Kenya much concern has been raised about e-waste management by movements, NGOs individuals and activists.  Despite the present concerns of the individual activists and the government about e- waste management in Kenya, Nairobi town is still faced with serious e- waste management problems.

The research basically investigated the impacts of poor handling of e-waste in Nairobi, and specifically Dandora where the municipal council dumping site is located. These impacts range from environmental impacts; health impacts economical impacts and social impacts. Lastly the research was proposed the most appropriate method to handle/ dispose these e-wastes to reduce their impacts.

The research employed social survery to copllect primary data by the use of questionnaires while secondary data was collected from publications, health records, journals and the internet. I also made personal observations which I used to collect more information. The data was then analyzed using the statistical package for social scientist (SPSS) by the use of graphs to present the results.

In my findings I fuond out that there are various categories of electronic wastes that are disposed in the dumping site and have adverse effects. Some of the findings included;

Ø  the environmental impacts for instance toxicity and radioactive nature of e-waste to human, siol, water, and animals.

Ø  The economical impacts for instance the substantial public spending on health care. Also found outb that those people handling these e-waste don’t have protective gear thus exposing them to various hazardous elements.

Ø  The social impacts for instance the health  impact people this has a great effect on the affected families as a lot of finance is spent on health care and at times loss of bread winners in the family.

Ø  Also on genereal observation most of the people handling waste in the dumping site are school drop-outs and have no knowledge on effects of e-waste and opposed the idea of relocating the dump site.

Finally report recommends that MENR needs to promulgate a policy and develop specific regulations on e-waste. This should govern the handling process from collection to final disposal, and licensing of key actors including ways they will be supported to ensure safety. Other ministries that need to be engaged are the Ministries responsible for ICTs and MoPHS, this is among other recommendations made in this report.

Glossary of terms

Importers/assemblers                           Importers and/or assemblers of branded and non branded electrical and electronic equipment.

Collector                                             Formal or non-formal bodies that collect e-waste. This may involve procuring bonded computers from government and parastatals, collecting old computers from private sector organizations etc. Includes formal rag-tag collectors

Consumers                                          An organization or individual that uses

electrical and electronic equipment and then discards it as waste after the equipment has reached its end-of-life. Note that the end-of life for a consumer is the functional use of the equipment by that consumer, and may feed into the second-hand market directly or through refurbishers.

Distributors/retailers                            Include all bodies selling equipment to the end-consumer, including donated computers.

Downstream vendors                          Industries buying fraction (e.g. copper, plastics, metals, gold etc.) produced by the recyclers. Can be national or international.

End-of-life                                          Refers to the end of the useful life of equipment in a particular environment. The equipment may then be passed onto the secondhand market. This is distinct from lifespan which describes the total functional life of the equipment.     

E-waste                                               Electronic waste (e-waste) refers to electrical or electronic equipment which is waste, including all components, subassemblies and consumables which are part of the product at the time of discarding. It includes computers and entertainment electronics consisting of valuable as well as harmful and toxic components.

Mass flow system                               A description and quantification of mass flows and stocks of computers over time defining the system borders.

Recyclers                                             Organizations dismantling, separating fractions, and recovering material from e-waste after the lifespan of the equipment. This includes plastic, copper, gold etc.

Refurbishers                                        Refurbishers extend the functional life of equipment. They include the repair and service centres. They often feed into the second-hard market.

Acronyms

CFSK                         Computer for Schools Kenya

EMCA            Environmental Management Co-ordination Act (1999)

ICTs               Information and communications technologies

MENR            Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

MoPHS           Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation

PC                   Personal Computer

PCBs               Polychlorinated biphenyls

PVC                Polyvinyl chloride

WEEE            Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

UNEP                         United Nations Environmental Programme

BFR                Brominated flame retardants

EPR                Extended Producer Responsibility

KICTAnet    Kenya ICT Action Network

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Background information

E-waste is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their, useful life.

Computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, and fax machines are common electronic products. There is no clear definition for e-waste; for instance whether or not items like microwave ovens and other similar, appliances should be grouped into the category which has not been established (California Integrated Waste Management Board 2005).

“Electronic waste or e-waste is any broken or unwanted electrical or electronic appliance. E-waste includes computers, entertainment electronics, mobile phones and other items that have been discarded by their original users. While there is no generally accepted definition of e-waste, in most cases e-waste consists of expensive and more or less durable products used for data processing, telecommunications or entertainment in private households and businesses” (Wikipedia 2006).

Industrial revolution followed by the advances in information technology during the last century has radically changed people's lifestyle. Although this development has helped the human race, mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess acquired during the last century has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For example, personal computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an environmental and health threat. Thus proper management is necessary while disposing or recycling e-wastes.

These days computer has become most common and widely used gadget in all kinds of activities ranging from schools, residences, offices to manufacturing industries. E-toxic components in computers could be summarized as circuit boards containing heavy metals like lead & cadmium; batteries containing cadmium; cathode ray tubes with lead oxide & barium; brominated flame retardants used on printed circuit boards, cables and plastic casing; poly vinyl chloride (PVC) coated copper cables and plastic computer casings that release highly toxic dioxins & furans when burnt to recover valuable metals; mercury switches; mercury in flat screens; poly chlorinated biphenyl's (PCB's) present in older capacitors; transformers; etc. Basel Action Network (BAN) estimates that the 500 million computers in the world contain 2.87 billion kgs of plastics, 716.7 million kgs of lead and 286,700 kgs of mercury. The average 14-inch monitor uses a tube that contains an estimated 2.5 to 4 kgs of lead. The lead can seep into the ground water from landfills thereby contaminating it. If the tube is crushed and burned, it emits toxic fumes into the air.

Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) poses one of the greatest environmental challenges globally and in particular to developing countries. Increased changes in technology especially in ICT, low initial cost, and high rates of obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of e-waste generation in Kenya. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) estimates the current e-waste generated annually in Kenya at 11, 400 tonnes from refrigerators, 2,800 tonnes from TVs, 2,500 tonnes from personal computers, 500 tonnes from printers and 150 tonnes from mobile phones (UNEP & UNU (United Nations University), 2009). This has resulted in e-waste management challenges that call for interventions.

Electronics industry is the world’s largest and fastest growing industry. The last decade has seen a tremendous growth in the manufacturing and consumption of electronics and electrical all over the world. As a consequence of this growth, combined with rapid product obsolescence and lower costs, discarded electronic and electrical equipments or ‘e-waste’ is now the most rapidly growing waste problem in the world.

E-waste is end-of-life electronic and electrical gadgets, in simpler words, broken, surplus or obsolete gadgets run by electricity. It includes discarded equipments like computers, printers, phones, TVs, fridges, toaster, electronic toys and many other types of equipment run by electricity. India, currently, is estimated to generate more than 4 tones of e-waste annually. The generation is estimated to go up many times in coming years, making it a critical issue.

But, E-waste is not just a problem of waste quantity or volumes. The concern is compounded because of the presence of toxic materials like Lead, mercury, cadmium, certain BFRs and many other chemicals. In developing country like India, most E-waste lands up in the informal sector where it is recycled without any consideration to health and environment. Open burning; acid baths, unventilated work spaces and crude handling of chemicals are typical of these operations, where susceptible groups like children and women are regularly employed. With no safety equipments at hand, the workers in some of the recycling hotspots spread all over the country, are exposed to the toxic cocktails daily. The unregulated practices also release hazardous materials in air, water and soil, thereby endangering our environment.

Along with enormous quantities and toxicity, E-waste also contains valuable non-renewal materials; hence the necessity to recycle materials and reduce burden on mining of virgin materials. Recovery of these materials without any adverse impact on environment requires a set of complex operations and highly advanced technology. Some of these complexities and concerns for environment created conditions for the policy-makers in many parts of the world to involve the producers / product manufacturers to own responsibility for the end of life disposal of these products and introduction of a policy tool ‘Extended Producer Responsibility’ (EPR).

Statement of the problem

There is a big problem in e-waste disposal in Nairobi due to the rampant increase in industries as we move towards industrialization and the urban migration. This has reduced to land been allocated to serve as disposal sites for e-waste, hence the poor handling and poor disposal of e-waste. Similarly, the lack of good legislation framework regulating the production of electronics, the handling, poor disposal for instance in Kenya the Solid waste management regulation of 2006, does not have any outlined clause on the management of e- waste, the increasing human population and their increased need has also accelerated the problem as well. The government has also failed in addressing the issue of handling and poor disposal of e-wastes with a sole excuse of resource incapacities. However, the real problem with handling and poor disposal of e-wastes in Nairobi is misappropriation and under involvement of the resident of the city in the development agenda. Therefore the realization of proper handling and disposal mechanism of these e-wastes has remained elusive.

Objective of the study

The broad objective of this research was to investigate various impacts/ consequences of poor handling and disposal methods of e-waste and recommendations to help minimize the situation in Dandora dumping site, and its environment.

Specific objectives

Ø  To establish various source of electronic waste and how these electronic wastes flow.

Ø  To determine the impacts of poor handling and disposal.

Ø  To propose better methods to handle and dispose e-waste

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

The rapid growth information and communication industry worldwide, have revolutionized social development and tremendously transformed learning and knowledge. While the developments have been welcomed, the electronic products have posed serious challenges for environmental sustainability particularly once the products reach end of life cycle resulting in tonnes of waste.

E-waste is the largest form of waste and growing exponentially in most part of the world. In Kenya, the telecommunication industry has been one of the fastest growing sectors and increasing demand for electronic goods that the levels of e-waste are growing fast.

However, e-waste also presents an economic opportunity through recycling and refurbishing of discarded electric goods and the harvesting of precious metals they contain. A number of recycling centers employing many young Kenyans have come up in many different parts o the country, but recycling e-wastes can result in harmful effects of air, water, soil and pose environmental hazard.

According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) estimates, electronic

products constitute approximately one percent of municipal solid waste. Research completed in

Europe shows that electronic waste is growing at three times the rate of other municipal waste.

Thus, the growing challenge of e-waste requires policy response to address the issue and guide the collection, disposal and recycling activities. The EMCA (1999) and Waste Management Regulation (2006) do not sufficiently address the emergent issue of e-waste.

Developed countries have various legislations and guidelines on e-waste. Their generated e-waste currently accounts for1% of total solid waste generation and is expected to grow to 5% by 2015. In the USA it accounts for 1% to 3% of total municipal waste generation. According to the European Community directive 2002/96/EC on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) (European Commission, 2010), e-waste is growing three times faster than average annual municipal solid waste generation. It is estimated that the total amount of e-waste generated in the EU ranges from 5 to 7 billion tonnes per annum or about 14 to 15 kg per capita and is expected to grow at a rate of 3% to 5% per year. In developing countries, it ranges from 0.01% to 1% of the total municipal solid waste generation. In China and India however where annual generation per capita is less than 1 kg, it is growing at an exponential pace.

Kenya generates 11,400 tonnes from refrigerators, 2,800 tonnes from TVs, 2,500 tonnes from personal computers, 500 tonnes from printers and 150 tonnes from mobile phones (UNEP, 2010). The mass flow study carried out in 2007 by Kenya ICT Action Network showed that 1,513 tonnes of electronics entered the market. The consumer in addition to receiving 1489.4 tonnes also received 151.3 tonnes from the second hand market. It was also revealed that consumers are likely to dispose 1,210.4 tonnes in the second-hard market, and 18.6 tonnes to collectors or as general waste which is sent to refurbishes’. The consumer disposes a further 18.6 tonnes directly to recyclers. Refurbishes’ and recyclers then send 605.2 tonnes for disposal.

Although there have been initiatives by reputable firms to manage e-waste such Nokia through their recycling scheme and Computer for Schools through their refurbishment programme, the practices for managing e-waste are mostly handled by the informal sector (Jua Kali). Most of these operators have inadequate skills, are neither registered nor authorized and operate in a secretive manner. These operations are well connected to the supply chain processes of sourcing the raw material to finding markets for the recovered materials during post-recycling operations. The processes are highly toxic and impact adversely to both the environment and human health.

The lack of clear disposal mechanisms has resulted in excessive stocks being held by the consumer. The lack of well developed structures to handle e-waste disposal cause a ‘drag’ on waste volumes. A lot of the old technology is held in storage due to a lack of clear strategies and processes for disposal. Disposal options vary widely depending on the user.

Government ministries and departments have to bond the computers and invite competitive tenders for disposal as scrap in line with procurement procedures. The process is slow and results in obsolete computers being held in government stores. Private sector corporations often donate the computers as charity to deserving users. Collectors, refurbishers and the recycling infrastructures are generally not developed and therefore the flow down the value chain has much lower volumes.

CHAPTER 3; RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methodology

Research Design

This was an exploratory study and employed a descriptive survey design to investigate the impacts of poor handling and disposal of e-waste in Dandora. Descriptions survey designs are used in preliminary and exploratory studies to allow researchers to gather information, summarize, present and interpret for the purpose of clarification. I based the study within the Nairobi county specially Dandora to identify the source of e-waste and the impacts of poor handling and disposal of e-waste.

Location of the Study

The study was conducted in the Dandora in Nairobi County. E-waste disposal within the town center is the responsibility of the municipal council of Nairobi. Nairobi has a lot of industries and other commercial businesses which produce electronic wastes not forgetting our domestic home which also generate solid waste which include e-waste, which is disposed in Dandora dumping site.

Target Population

Orodho (2004) defines population as all the items or people under consideration. For this study, the target population consisted of about 300 commercial/business/domestic households’ establishments within Nairobi. Commercial/business establishments were selected because they are stationery which uses electronics and industries which produce large volumes of e-wastes everyday. It also portrayed the broad picture of e- waste management within the buildings.

Sampling Procedure

Sampling is defined as the process of selecting a subset of cases in order to draw conclusions about the entire set.  Sampling is important because administering questionnaires to a large group of people is tiresome and expensive, thus studying a few of its members saves time and money.

Sample Size

The sample size for this study consisted of 30 commercial/business/domestic households’ establishment within the Nairobi industrial area and Dandora. This represented about a tenth of the total target of about 300 establishments, included was the Nairobi municipal council to shed light on e-waste disposal and management and also the community surrounding the dumping the site.

Sampling Technique

A cross-sectional study design was used and a sample of 30commerciall buildings/ industries/domestic households was selected through multistage sampling technique as follows: three commercial buildings out of every street within the Industrial Area and city center were randomly picked.  The three selected establishments represented the commercial buildings and industries in one street. From the selected establishment, a credible respondent was interviewed and the questionnaire filled.

The Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument that gathers data over a large sample (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). The advantages of using questionnaires are: the person administering the instrument has an opportunity to establish rapport, explain the purpose of the study and explain the meaning of items that may not be clear.  Engel (2005) describes a questionnaire in the context of communication discipline as structured, goal-oriented communication. The main purpose of a questionnaire is to communicate to the respondent what is intended and to elicit desired response in terms of empirical data from the respondents in order to achieve the research objectives (Chandran, 2004). Babbie (2004) observes that questionnaires are more appropriate when addressing sensitive issues, especially when the survey offers anonymity to avoid reluctance or deviation from respondents.

Data Collection Procedure

The researcher administered  the questionnaire to the respondents. This was one of the sources of primary data.  The other source of primary data was observation.  The selected business establishments were visited and the questionnaires administered to the respondents.

Data Analysis Methods

Collected data was cross examined to ascertain their accuracy and identify those items wrongly responded to. The data was analyzed to conform to the objectives in relation to the topic.  After all the data is collected it was entered into the computer for analysis using the statistical package for social scientist (SPSS).

CHAPTER FOUR; DISCUSSIONS

Sources of E-waste and categorization

This chapter describes the different categories of electronic and electrical appliances, the e-waste resulting from them and their levels of toxicity. It’s important to note that these elements may be found in combination with others. The objective of this section was to understand different types of electrical and electronic equipment so that they may be disposed of appropriately through sorting, collection, dismantling, treatment and disposal. There are two broad categories of e-waste based on mode of operation and function and based on elemental composition.

Categorization based on mode of operation and function

The classification of equipment is based on the mode of operation and function. It reveals the composition of physical components before dismantling in order to facilitate sorting.

Table 1 shows various types of e-wastes and their examples

Type of e-waste	Examples of equipment
ICT and Telecommunications equipment	Mainframes, Printers, Personal computers (CPU, mouse, screen and keyboard included), Laptop computer, Networking equipment, Scanners, Mobile phones, CD / DVDs / Floppy Disks, UPSs, Radio sets, Television sets, Video cameras, Video recorders, Hi-fi recorders, Audio amplifiers and Musical instruments.
Office electronics	Photocopying equipment, Electrical and electronic typewriters, Pocket and desk calculators, Facsimile and Telephones.
Large Household Appliances	Refrigerators, Freezers, Washing machines, Dish washing machines, Cooking equipment, Microwaves, Electric heating appliances, Electric hot plates, Electric radiators, Electric fans, Air conditioner appliances, exhaust ventilation and conditioning equipment, large appliances for heating beds, rooms and seating furniture.
Small Household Appliances	Vacuum cleaners, Carpet sweepers, Water dispensers, Toasters, Fryers, Appliances for hair-cutting, hair drying, brushing teeth, shaving and massage; Electric knives, Clocks, Appliances used for sewing, knitting and weaving.
Consumer Equipment.	Equipment for turning, milling, sanding, grinding, sawing, cutting, shearing, drilling, punching, folding, bending or processing wood, metal and other materials. Tools for riveting, nailing or screwing or removing rivets, nails, screws or similar uses, Tools for welding, soldering or similar use. Tools for mowing or other gardening activities.
Toys, leisure and sports equipment	Electric trains or car racing sets, Hand-held video game, Video games, Computers for biking, diving, running, rowing, etc., Sports equipment with electric or electronic components.
Lighting	Fluorescent tubes, Compact fluorescent lamps, High intensity discharge lamps, including pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps; Low pressure sodium lamps, Other lighting or equipment for the purpose of spreading or controlling light with the exception of filament bulbs.
Medical equipment	Scanners, Operating equipments, Stethoscopes, radiotherapy equipment, Cardiology, Dialysis, Pulmonary ventilators, Nuclear medicine equipment, Laboratory equipment for in-vitro diagnosis, Analyzers, Freezers, Fertilization tests. Other appliances for detecting, preventing, monitoring, treating, and alleviating illness, injury or disability.
Automatic dispensers	Automatic dispensers for hot drinks, Automatic dispensers for hot or cold bottles or cans, Automatic dispensers for solid products, Automatic dispensers for money, and other appliances which deliver automatically all kind of products.
Monitoring and control instruments	Smoke detectors, Heating regulators, Thermostats, Measuring, weighing or adjusting appliances for household or as laboratory equipment and other monitoring and control instruments used in industrial installations (e.g. in control panels).
Batteries	Lead Batteries, Nickel and Cadmium batteries etc.

Categorization based on element composition

This category is based on the physical, chemical and gaseous components found in the electrical and electronic appliances. They include epoxy resins, fiber glass, Polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCBs),(polyvinyl chlorides) (PVC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron and Aluminum. They also vary in quantity:

Elements found in small amounts

They include cadmium, mercury, and thallium

Elements found in trace amounts

They include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium etc.

Almost all electronics contain lead and tin (as solder) and copper (as wire and printed circuit board tracks), though the use of lead-free solder is now being promoted all over the world. These substances can be divided further based on their level of toxicity to humans and the environment.

Hazardous elements

This category includes those elements that are harmful to the environment and human health;

Table 2 below shows some hazardous elements in electrical and electronic equipment

Element	For example found in electrical and electronic equipment such as:
Americium	Smoke alarms (radioactive source).
Mercury	Fluorescent tubes (numerous applications); tilt switches (pinball games, mechanical doorbells, thermostats).
Sulfur	Lead-acid batteries.
PCBs	Prior to ban, almost all 1930s–1970s equipment, including capacitors, transformers, wiring insulation, paints, inks, and flexible sealants used PCBs.
Cadmium	Light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys for marine and aviation environments and nickel-cadmium batteries.
Lead	Old solder CRT monitor glass, lead-acid batteries and formulations of PVC.
Beryllium oxide	Filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease used on heat sinks of CPUs and power transistors, magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum tubes, and gas lasers
Polyvinyl chloride	PVC contains additional chemicals to change the chemical consistency of the product. Some of these additives can leach out of vinyl products e.g. plasticizers that are added to make PVC flexible.

Generally non hazardous elements

This category includes materials that are not harmful. They can be extracted from the used electrical and electronic appliances and applied elsewhere. They include;

Table 3 shows generally non hazardous elements

Element	For example found in electrical and electronic equipment such as:
Tin	Solder, coatings on component leads.
Copper	Copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, component leads.
Aluminium	Nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of power, including electrolytic capacitors.
Iron	Steel chassis, cases, and fixings.
Germanium:	1950s–1960s transistorized electronics (bipolar junction transistors).
Silicon	Glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards.
Nickel	Nickel-cadmium batteries.
Lithium	Lithium-ion batteries.
Zinc	Plating for steel parts.
Gold	Connector plating, primarily in computer equipment.

The figure below shows the suspected and known routes of e-waste dumping in the world;

Source: (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition 2009)

The figure below shows the mass flow diagram of e-waste

Source: Waema T. and Murethi M. (2008)

Impacts of poor handling and disposal of e-waste

Environmental impacts

The main environmental impacts of e-waste mainly arise due to inappropriate collection and

disposal, rather than inherent toxic contents although drawing boundaries between secondary goods intended for reuse and waste materials may be a challenge.

·         E-waste contains more than 1000 different substances, many of which are highly toxic. e-waste contains both valuable materials, such as gold and copper, as well as highly toxic

            substances, such as lead and mercury.

·         The informal dumping sites and the crude methods used to reclaim materials from the e-waste without environmental monitoring generate many kinds of pollutants thus creating

            serious problems to ecological environment and human health.

·         Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs) can also be generated through recycling plastics. The open burning of cables to recover copper produces highly toxic dioxin emissions, which are emitted to the ambient air.

However, since the introduction of EMCA in Kenya in early 1999, there have been a lot of developments that have shaped the way the country manages the environment. Key among these developments is the introduction of the requirement for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for all development projects and activities that are likely to have significant impact on the environment, so that adverse impacts can be foreseen before they are implemented and ways and means identified to eliminate or minimize them, while the positive impacts could be maximized.

The role of civil society organizations in dealing with e waste is limited due to the lack of human

capacity in the field. Most interventions in environmental protection by civil society are oriented to the activities of deforestation and terracing.

Soil pollution

The most common problem causing cationic metals (metallic elements whose forms in soil are positively charged cations e.g., Pb2+) are mercury, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, chromium, and manganese. The most common anionic compounds (elements whose forms in soil are combined with oxygen and are negatively charged e.g., MoO4 2-) are arsenic, molybdenum, selenium, and boron, this cations make the soil around the Dandora dumping site unproductive due to their solubility in water thus laterally movement in the soil.

This heavy metals can also  bioaccumulate in the plants reaching toxic levels which later have heatlth effects on human being

and animals grazing in this area.

Heavy metal pollution of soil enhances plant uptake causing accumulation in plant tissues and eventual phytotoxicity and change of plant community. In general, an increase of metal concentration influences soil microbial properties (e.g. transpiration rate, enzyme activity), which appear very useful as indicators of soil pollutions.

Study that was done in the locality of the dumping site revealed that the presence  of heavy metals in the soil sample, among the heavy metals exceeded the international standards included; lead , mercury, cadmium, chromium, copper and zinc which were  likely to have leached to Nairobi river causing adverse effect down the river ecosystem.

Heavy metal concentrations in the study’s soil samples and soil standards

D/K=Dandora/ korogocho, W= waithaka, Neths= Netherlands, Taiwan

Source; a pilot study report Njoroge G. Kimani on Environmental Pollution and Impact to Public Health; Implication of the Dandora Municipal Dumping Site in Nairobi, Kenya

Air pollution

Incineration releases heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury into the air and ashes. Mercury released into the atmosphere can bioaccumulate in the food chain (fish) PVC plastic releases highly toxic dioxins and furans Brominated flame retardants generate brominated dioxins and furans when e-waste is burned. This also lead to emission of green house gases, acidic gases and gases that lead to depletion of ozone layer, which poses a great risk to live form in the earth,

Water pollution

Heavy metals can enter a water supply by industrial and consumer waste, or even from

acid rain breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes, rivers, and

groundwater. This has greatly reduced the palatability of water in the Nairobi River which passes through the dumping site in Dandora, this affects the river e ecosystem and its biodiversity hence loss of marine animals thus biodiversity loss impairing the e ecosystem balance.

Health impacts

Poor conventional methods of disposing e-waste, which are mainly Open dumping and Open

burning results into oxidation of plastics made of BFR, this releases dioxins, furans and toxic

Respiratory Suspended Particles (RSP) that cause risks to human health on exposure, and alters

environmental systems.

E-waste is much more hazardous than many other municipal wastes because electronic gadgets

contain thousands of components made of deadly chemicals and metals like lead, cadmium,

Chromium, mercury, polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), brominates flame retardants, beryllium, and antimony and phthalates.

Long-term exposure to these substances damages the nervous systems, kidney, and

bones, reproductive and endocrine systems. Some of them are carcinogenic and neurotoxin. A study

conducted by Greenpeace in 2005 in electronic recycling yards in Delhi clearly indicates the

presence of high levels of hazardous chemicals including dioxins and furans in the areas where this

primitive / unauthorized recycling takes place. Disposal of e-wastes is a critical problem faced and

poses a threat to both health and vital components of the ecosystem. There are number of channels

through which e-waste goes to the environment.

Study that was done in the locality of the dumping site revealed that the presence of heavy metals in the blood samples of children in the are, of concern n was high levels of lead and mercury which have adverse effect in the  human health.

According to records obtained from the Catholic Church dispensary at Kariobangi, for the period

between 2003 and May 2006, an average 9121 people per annum had been treated for respiratory tract related problems at the center. To many of the residents and local health care providers, these abnormalities are exacerbated by the environment around the dumping site. The people are also at risk of contracting blood borne diseases such as HIV

Lead poisoning

Lead is associated with a wide range of toxicity in children across a very broad band of exposures, down to the lowest blood lead concentrations yet studied, both in animals and people. These toxic effects extend from acute, clinically obvious, symptomatic poisoning at high levels of exposure down to subclinical (but still very damaging) effects at lower levels. Lead poisoning can affect virtually every organ system in the body. The principal organs affected are the central and peripheral nervous system and the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, renal, endocrine, immune and haematological systems

Source; a pilot study report Njoroge G. Kimani on Environmental Pollution and Impact to Public Health; Implication of the Dandora Municipal Dumping Site in Nairobi, Kenya

The table 4 below summarize the various constituents of e-wastes, their source and heath effects

Source of e-wastes	Constituent	Health Effects
Solder in printed circuit boards, glass panels and gaskets in computer monitors	Lead (Pb)	Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems and kidney damage. Affects brain development of children
Chip resistors and semiconductors	Cadmium (Cd)	Toxic irreversible effects on human health; Accumulates in kidney and liver; Causes neural damage; Teratogenic.
Relays and switches, printed circuit boards	Mercury (Hg)	Chronic damage to the brain; Respiratory and skin disorders due to bioaccumulation in fishes.
Corrosion protection of untreated and galvanized steel plates, decorator or hardener for steel housings	Hexavalent chromium (Cr) VI	Asthmatic bronchitis. DNA damage
Cabling and computer housing	Plastics including PVC	Burning produces dioxin. It causes reproductive and developmental problems; Immune system damage; Interfere with regulatory hormones
Plastic housing of electronic Equipments and circuit boards.	Brominated flame retardants (BFR)	Disrupts endocrine system functions
Front panel of CRTs	Barium(Ba)	Short term exposure causes: Muscle weakness; Damage to heart, liver and spleen.
motherboard	Beryllium (Be)	Carcinogenic (lung cancer); inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic beryllium disease or beryllicosis. Skin diseases such as warts.

(Source: Gitau, 2010)

The figure below gives a summary of various hazardous substances found in electrical and electronic waste and which parts of the boy they affect.

Source: (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition 2009)

Social impacts

Four sub-sectors have been considered decisive for a social impact analysis of e-waste management.

That is to say; Collection, Refurbishment, Material recovery mainly for reuse, recycling and final

disposal. In general recyclable waste is viewed as a resource and income-generating opportunity.

Electronic-waste is mostly handled by the informal sector and provides jobs for people that have

difficulty accessing formal employment by:

·         Collecting (and re-selling waste)

·         Practicing re-pairs both formally and informally

·         Recycling and

·         Disposal

There are other significant economic potentials if valuable materials in e- waste are recovered. The e-waste industry provide income-generating opportunities for both individuals and enterprises, as waste is sold and traded among collectors, processors, second-hand dealers and consumers.

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND RESULTS

The table below shows volumes entering the market of the stakeholders:

Equipment imported/ assembled	2007	2006	2005	2004
Desktop computers (including monitor)	15,130	6885	6530	6400
Notebook computers	8,288	5760	5660	5600
Monitors	13,660	5417	5415	5400
Flat screens	3,775	2335	2315	2300
Printers	1,455	30	27	0
Photocopiers	5,010	5010	5010	5000
Fax machines	13	13	17	0
Modems	8,255	20	25	0
UPS	1790	1020	1020	1000
Total	57376	26490	26019	25700

Source: Waema T. and Murethi M. (2008

The graph below is a representation of the above table, where the mean total value of imported equipment is plotted against years;

From the graph its e evident that the amounts of computers equipments that have been imported between 2004-2007 have been increasing this resulted due to improvement in technology and peoples need for newer technology. For instance the new technology of ipads and tablets is expected to lead to high disposal of 3^rd generation computers and as result a lot of e-waste is generated. This graph was used in this research to show how importation of electrical and electronics equipments have increased over the last years.

This pie graph is sliced by business and then summarized by the volume in percentage that these businesses produced. From the graph the it’s evident that medical suppliers produced the highest percentage followed by salon/ barber, professional services, electrical and electronic shops, factories/industries and lastly casino and gaming centers respectively. It’s however predicted the amount of waste produced by electrical and electronic shops is expected to increase due to the continued advancement in technology. 

36.4% of the consumer respondents indicated that when the equipment is no longer useful, they store at their own premises. Further, 45.5% indicated that they sell the equipment as secondhand

equipment, donate it to schools, or give it to employees, family or friends. Those who either give their equipment to a recycler or disassemble to reuse some parts made a combined percentage of 36.4%. This was being considered the percentage of the equipment that trickles down to the downstream vendors from the consumer level.

The research noted that 90% of the respondents have discarded ICT accessories of some kind. In particular, 70% have discarded desktop computers and monitors; 50% have discarded notebook

computers, printers, telephones, photocopiers, and fax machines;40% have discarded modems; and 20% have discarded flat screen monitors, mobile phones and televisions. This is an indication of a potentially high accumulation of e-waste.

The research also noted that approximately 57% of the respondents don’t separate their waste and cited various reasons as to why, some argued that all is just waste, no extra storage, it has no value, others argued that it was time consuming and lack of time. So this presents hard time to those who collect e-waste from such premises as they have to separate the waste to ease management of the e-waste. Also it was noted that 43% of the respondents did separate their waste and their did it to ease its management or for commercial purpose which may include recycling or sell in the back street (black market).

The research also noted that 50% of the respondent agreed to have the dumpsite being relocated to another area where it be would not be in direct contact with human being, they argued that it posed health risks to the surrounding people, also it polluted river Nairobi which passes near the dumping site, others argued that if dumpsite is relocated it would create room for development of facilities which would be of great economic value. 50% of the respondents disagreed with the relocation of the dumpsite citing that it serviced as a source of livelihood for the surrounding people as the collected material from it and sold in the back street also they argued that it was a source of revenue as each truck depositing waste in the dumpsite is charged a fee to be allowed to dump waste also young men are employed as turn-boys to off load those trucks.

The pie chart below shows the various means of disposal used by various business and households;

From the pie chart it was noted that municipal council collection accounted for the 38.79% followed by burning. This indicated that with municipal collection being high it presented the inefficiency with the disposal and collection.

CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATION

• MENR needs to promulgate a policy and develop specific regulations on e-waste. This should          govern the handling process from collection to final disposal, and licensing of key actors including ways they will be supported to ensure safety. Other ministries that need to be engaged are the Ministries responsible for ICTs and MoPHS;

• MENR and related stakeholders need to create awareness of e-waste and the safe handling of e-waste. A key focus should be to create awareness on how to dispose unusable equipment

through an organised collection and disposal system;

• Local Authorities should require that e-waste is collected and disposed off separately from solid waste by e-waste collectors. Waste should be sorted at source;

• NEMA should set training standards for personnel handling e-waste to be enforced by the Local Authorities. Awareness and training programmes for staff should be developed and

implemented;

• MENR and NEMA should encourage the growth and expansion of recycling capability in  Kenya to avoid the high costs of shipping equipment back to Europe that is incurred by

organisations pioneering recycling;

• NEMA should establish a mechanism to raise funds for the expensive process of e-waste management. An option is to charge a fee to the suppliers of old equipment or those who want to dispose large volumes of equipment in the country;

• Local Authorities should establish disposal sites far from residential areas due to health concerns;

• MENR should encourage and acknowledge the role of civil society stakeholders in creating awareness and conducting research on e-waste. To this extent KICTAnet and its partners, as well as CFSK, should be supported in their pioneering work on e-waste.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study are evidence that waste dumping at the Dandora waste dumping site is a potential source of environmental pollution and a great risk to the health of people living within and surrounding the dumping site.

E-waste is expected to be a huge problem in the future, given the rise in importation in 2007. It is imperative that measures are put in place to address the emerging challenge. There is high accumulation of old ICT equipment in homes, offices and repair shops because the owners are not aware of disposal options and whether it has any residual value. Knowledge on where to discard e-waste is lacking right from the consumer to the final disposer. E-waste management policies are lacking, and there is no legislation to deal properly with the challenge.

Finally the government and key stakeholders should

CHAPTETR 6: REFERENCES

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2.      Madanmohan Rao, Research Project Director, Mobile Monday: Mobile Africa report 2011;Regional hubs of excellence and innovation, March 2011.

3.      Félicien Usengumukiza, Senior Research Fellow: Overview of Rwanda’s ICT context,  Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (IPAR-Rwanda); Kigali July 2009.

4.      Glen Farell: ICT in education in Rwanda, Survey of ICT education in Africa; April 2007.

5.      EPA (2001) Waste from electrical and electronic equipment in Ireland: a status report. EPA

6.      Topic Report, Cork Institute of Technology and Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland.

7.      Implementation of the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive in the EU,   European Commission, Directorate General, Joint Research Centre, IPTS, 2006

8.      Waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) – quantities, dangerous substances   and treatment methods, EEA Copenhagen, 2003.

9.      Hai-Yong Kang, Julie M. Schoenung, Electronic waste recycling: A review of U.S.    infrastructure and technology options, Resources Conservation & Recycling 45 (2005) 368-   400, Elsevier

10.  IRGSSA (2004) Management, handling and practices of E-waste recycling in Delhi.     

11.  Management of Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment, ACRR 2003.

12.  United Nations Environmental Programme, 2007, Inventory Assessment Manual, E-waste        Volume I, Osaka, Japan